In Greek and Roman civilization, parks were associated with spirituality, public recreation, and city living. Greek philosophers pondered the meaning of nature and its innermost workings, the relationships between animals and humankind, and how matter related to spirit. The philosophy of Aristotle (384—332 B.C.) advanced the fundamental notion of nature as the embodiment of everything outside culture, an essence opposed to art and artificiality. This sense of nature and culture as distinct opposites continues to govern ideas about the environment and society today. Meanwhile, the suggestion of a state of nature, wholesome and pure, defined in opposition to civilized life, found acceptance in Aristotle’s time through the concept of the Golden Age –a legendary ideal that had significance for landscape planning and artistic experiment. Described by Greek poets and playwrights, the Golden Age of perpetual spring depicted an era before the adoption of agriculture, when humans embraced nature’s wonder and communicated with spirits in sacred woods. In The Odyssey (800 B.C.), Homer, the great Greek writer, described a garden that was a place of constant productivity, where “fruit never fails nor runs short, winter and summer alike.”

Greek interest in spirituality and nature manifested itself in the tradition of the sacred grove. Usually comprised of a few trees, a spring, or a mountain crag, sacred groves became intensely mystical places by their associations with gods, spirits, or celebrated folk heroes. Twisted trees, sections of old-growth forest, and rocks or caves typically surrounded the naturalistic shrines and altars. As the Roman official and writer Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23—79) put it, “Trees were the first temples of the gods, and even now simple country people dedicate a tree of exceptional height to a god with the ritual of olden times, and we… worship forests and the very silences they contain.”

The Greeks were not alone in their spiritual veneration of nature. Examples of pantheism –the belief that God and the universe or nature are the same –and the worship of trees permeated many cultures. The nations of northern Europe utilized trees as places of worship. In Scandinavian mythology, the tree called Yggdrasil held up the world, its branches forming the heavens and its roots stretching into the underworld. A spring of knowledge bubbled at its base, and an eagle perched amid its sturdy branches. The Maori people of New Zealand celebrated a tree that separated the sky from the earth. For many ancient civilizations, trees signified life, permanence, and wisdom.

In some spiritual traditions, landscapes such as gardens or deserts were treated as abstract emblems of spiritual states such as innocence or despair. Rather than symbolic landscapes, as in the Judeo-Christian tradition, Greek sacred groves operated as literal homes of the gods. Instead of being confined to prehistory or celestial space, spiritual parkscapes were present within the existing cultural terrain. One could not visit a symbol of peace and serenity, but one could experience these qualities in a sacred grove.

The spiritual significance of the sacred grove mandated specific preservationist measures. Civil restrictions and environmental codes of practice governed the use of such spaces. Enclosing walls prevented sheep from desecrating sacred sites, while patrolling priests issued spiritual guidance along with fines for vandalism. Laws forbade hunting, fishing, or the cutting of trees. Those not dissuaded by monetary penalties were threatened with the anger of the resident gods.

Such environmental care suggested to historian J. Donald Hughes that sacred groves represented “classical national parks.” By helping to insulate sacred groves from pressures of deforestation, erosion, and urbanization, Greek codes protected ecosystems from destruction. Sacred groves nonetheless represented imperfect parkscapes. Some encompassed relatively small areas such as a section of a hillside or a series of caves. Meanwhile, the fundamental purpose of the grove –the visitation of resident gods –sometimes promoted activities not entirely conducive to modern concepts of conservation. Animals were routinely captured to serve as sacrifices to the gods. Many groves witnessed horticultural and architectural improvements. Flowers were planted, trails cut, and statues, fountains, and caves installed for the benefit of visitors. The grove served as a recreational center for Greek society, a realm of ritual, performance, feasting, and even chariot racing.

在希腊和罗马文明中，公园与灵性，公共娱乐和城市生活息息相关。希腊的哲学家们思索着大自然及其内在运作的意义，动物与人类之间的关系，以及物质与精神之间的关系。亚里士多德哲学（公元前384-332年）把自然的基本概念视作文化之外所有事物的体现，这是一种与艺术和人造物相对立的本质。这种截然不同的自然和文化意识继续支配着当今环境和社会的观念。同时，在亚里士多德时代，与文明生活相反，有关健康、纯净的自然状态的建议，通过黄金时代的概念——一个对景观规划和艺术实验意义重大的传奇理想得到了接受。希腊诗人和剧作家将四季如春的黄金时代描绘了农耕文化前的一个时代，当时人类接受了自然奇迹，并与神圣树丛中的灵魂交流。伟大的希腊作家荷马在《奥德赛》（公元前800年）中描述了一个拥有永恒生产力的地方，那里的“无论冬季还是夏季，果实都不会被吃完”。 希腊对灵性和自然的兴趣表现有关神圣树丛的传说中。神圣的树丛通常由几棵树、一座泉水或一座山峭壁组成，人们将其与神灵，灵魂或者著名的民间英雄联系在一起，从而成为了极其神秘的地方。崎岖的树丛，部分古老森林，岩石或洞穴，通常环绕着自然神龛和祭坛。正如罗马官员和作家普林尼（公元23-79年）所说：“树是神灵的第一座庙宇，即使到了现在，纯朴的乡下人也会遵循古代仪式，给神灵供奉一棵特别高的树，我们......崇拜森林和森林中所包含的寂静。” 希腊人并不是唯一对​​自然的产生精神崇拜的群体。例如，泛神论相信——上帝、宇宙和自然是相同的——许多文化都存在对树的崇拜。北欧各国将树丛作为礼拜场所。在斯堪的纳维亚神话中，将树称之为可以撑起整个世界的“宇宙树”，它的枝条形成了天堂，它的树根伸向了地下世界。知识的源泉涌向了它的根基，一只鹰栖息在它坚固的树枝上。新西兰的毛利人赞美一棵树，赞美它将天空与大地分开。对于许多古代文明来说，树木代表着生命，永恒和智慧。 在一些精神传统中，诸如花园或沙漠之类的风景被视为精神状态的抽象象征，如天真或绝望。与犹太教和基督教传统一致，希腊神圣的树丛不是象征性的景观，而是众神的寓所。精神性的公园景观并不是仅存在于史前时代或于天体空间，而是存在于现有的文化领域中。人们无法感受和平与宁静的象征，但是可以在神圣的树丛中体验这些特质。 神圣树丛的精神意义要求采取特定的保护措施。民事限制和环境法规控制着这些空间的使用。围墙阻止羊群亵渎圣地，而巡逻中的牧师发布了精神指导，并对破坏行为处以罚款。法律明文禁止狩猎，捕鱼或砍伐树木的行为。那些没有受到金钱惩罚的人们，会受到驻地神灵的严酷惩罚。 这种环境保护要求是由历史学家J.唐纳德休斯提出的，神圣的树丛代表了“古典的国家公园”。通过帮助森林免受砍伐，侵蚀和城市化的压力，希腊规范保护生态系统，使其不受破坏。然而，神圣的树丛却代表了不完美的公园景观。一些树丛中还包含了相对较小的区域，例如一段山坡或一连串的洞穴。与此同时，树丛存在的基本目的—拜访驻地神—有时也会促进非完全有利于现代保护概念的活动。通常，会捕获动物来祭祀神灵。许多树丛见证了园艺和建筑的进步。种植花卉，切割小径，以及安装雕像，喷泉和洞穴以供参观。树丛是希腊人的休闲中心，是仪式，表演，宴会，甚至车赛的活动中心。